Remotely Sensing Cities and Environments

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# Remotely Sensing Cities and Environments

### Lecture 8: Temperature and policy

### 02/02/2022 (updated: 06/03/2023)

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---

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---
# Lecture outline

### Part 1: Temperature and policy

### Part 2: Extracting temperature from satellite data

]

.pull-right[
<img src="img/satellite.png" width="100%" />
.small[Source:[Original from the British Library. Digitally enhanced by rawpixel.](https://www.rawpixel.com/image/571789/solar-generator-vintage-style)
]]

---
class: inverse, center, middle

# Let's recall some policy we looked at...with a focus on the Urban Heat Island (or temperature)

---

# What is the Urban Heat Island

## What is the problem?

---

#  What is the Urban Heat Island

>  urban areas obtain comparatively higher atmospheric and surface temperatures than surrounding rural areas

<img src="img/UHIfig1-768x779.png" width="55%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[EARTH.ORG](https://earth.org/data_visualization/urban-heat-islands/)
]

---
class: inverse, center, middle

#  What is the Urban Heat Island 2

---

#  What is the Urban Heat Island 3

**Two main** factors:

1. More dark surfaces that retain heat
1. Less vegetation that cools the environment (evapotranspiration and solar blocking)

But other factors include:

* A low Sky View Factor (SVF)
  * radiation received (or emitted) by a planar surface to the radiation emitted (or received) by the entire hemispheric environment
* air speed, cloud cover, cyclic solar radiation, building material type and anthropogenic energy

]

<img src="img/UHI_contributors.png" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Fig 1: Factors responsible for Urban Heat Island Effect. (Source – Osmond, 2017) Source here:[Cidco Smartcity](https://niua.org/cidco/urban-heat-island-effect-causes-and-remedies/)
]
]

---
# How much does it cost

**Social**

* Population adjusted excess mortality rates during the 1998
Shanghai heatwave were estimated at **27.3 per 100,000 within the urban area** compared to only **7
per 100,000 in the exurban** districts [Tan et al. 2009](https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00484-009-0256-x#:~:text=An%20examination%20of%20summer%20mortality,exposure%20to%20extreme%20thermal%20conditions.)

**Environmental**

* Each degree of ambient temperature rise the increase in peak
electricity load has been estimated between 0.45 and 4.6%, corresponding to around 21 W per
degree rise per person [Santamouris et al. 2015](https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0378778814007907)
* Fossil fuel + pollution
]

<img src="img/buffalo_etm_2002215.jpg" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Buffalo - August 3, 2002. Source:[Earth Observatory, NASA](https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/47704/urban-heat-islands?src=ve)
]

<img src="img/providence_etm_2002212.jpg" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Providence - July 31, 2002. Source:[Earth Observatory, NASA](https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/47704/urban-heat-islands?src=ve)
]

]

???

* Increase in fossil fuel usage 
* Energy use from extra demand 
* Heat related deaths 
* Cardiac and respiratory

---

# How much does it cost 2

**Economic**

.pull-left[
* Melbourne first assessment $300 million (AUD) of which health $282. Other factors:
  * transport
  * energy
  * anti-social behavior
  * [AECOM, 2012](https://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/sitecollectiondocuments/eco-assessment-of-urban-heat-island-effect.pdf)
]

.pull-right[
<img src="img/UHI_AECOM.png" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[AECOM, 2012](https://www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/sitecollectiondocuments/eco-assessment-of-urban-heat-island-effect.pdf)
]
]
]

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) = value of finished goods and services within a country

* Under low Green House Gas scenario
  * 0.71% (in 2050) and 1.04% (in 2100)

* Under very high Green House Gas scenario
  * 0.80% (in 2050) and 1.79% (in 2100)

* UHI excluded from Global Climate Change (GCC) scenarios

]
]

]

---

# Hope

* reduction in economic damages through policies...

<img src="img/mitigation_urbanimpacts.png" width="45%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[Estrada et al. 2017](https://www.nature.com/articles/nclimate3301.pdf)
]

---

# Context

* 4.5
  *  intermediate scenario
  * Co2 declines around 2045

* 6
  * peak emission 2080 then decline

* 8
  * Continued emission rise = worst case scenario
]

<img src="img/RCP.png" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[Wikipedia](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway#/media/File:All_forcing_agents_CO2_equivalent_concentration.svg)
]

* Note, in 2017 the RCPs were updated with the Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs)

* See the [carbonbrief explainer](https://www.carbonbrief.org/explainer-the-high-emissions-rcp8-5-global-warming-scenario/)

]

---

# Is policy helping us?

---

# Global

---
# Global policy documents

* New Urban Agenda = standards and principles for planning, construction, development, management and urban improvement

> We commit ourselves to the generation and use of renewable and affordable energy and sustainable and efficient transport infrastructure and services, where possible,

> achieving the **benefits of connectivity and reducing the financial, environmental and public health costs of inefficient mobility, congestion, air pollution, urban heat island effects and noise**.

> We also commit ourselves to giving particular attention to the energy and transport needs of all people, particularly the poor and those living in informal settlements. We also note that reductions in renewable energy costs give cities and human settlements an effective tool to lower energy supply costs.

]
.panel[.panel-name[point 79]

> We commit ourselves to promoting international, national, subnational and local climate action, including climate change adaptation and mitigation,

> **and to supporting the efforts of cities and human settlements, their inhabitants and all local stakeholders as important implementers**.

]

> We commit ourselves to promoting **safe, inclusive, accessible, green and quality public spaces, including streets, sidewalks and cycling lanes, squares, waterfront areas, gardens and parks**,

> that are multifunctional areas for social interaction and inclusion, **human health and well-being**
  
]
]

---

# Global policy documents

* Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) = targets with measurable indicators for monitoring

* Goal 11: Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable

]
.panel[.panel-name[Target]

* No direct mention of urban heat in [the targets](https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/metadata/?Text=&Goal=11&Target=)...but...

* [2018 SDG 11 issue brief](https://wedocs.unep.org/handle/20.500.11822/25763)
  
> Investing in parks and green spaces in urban areas will help to amelioratethe urban heat island effect and improve air quality in urban spaces.

> We work with national coordination units that support integrated urban planning and mapping and promote sustainable heating and cooling in related and cross-sector policy frameworks at multiple levels

Following 2021 United Nations Climate Change Conference in Glasgow....[beat the heat handbook](https://www.unep.org/resources/report/beating-heat-sustainable-cooling-handbook-cities)

.center[
<iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/OqMpbL1dnX0" title="YouTube video player" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; clipboard-write; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen></iframe>
]]
]
]

---

# Beat The Heat Handbook

* This handbook contains a **lot** of information and it's easy to get lost

* Would a city planner engage with all **208 pages?**

* If is the first full guide on UHI that suggests
  * Baseline assessment 
  * Key factors to consider(p. 60) such as albedo, urban form, city zoning, green cover, heat maps (that mention satellite data) - **Chapter 5**
  
* First major document that calls for specific integration into policy

]

<img src="img/city_interventions.png" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[Beating the Heat: A Sustainable Cooling Handbook for Cities](https://www.unep.org/resources/report/beating-heat-sustainable-cooling-handbook-cities)
]

]

---
# Beat The Heat Handbook 2

<img src="img/matrix_to_support.png" width="65%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[Beating the Heat: A Sustainable Cooling Handbook for Cities](https://www.unep.org/resources/report/beating-heat-sustainable-cooling-handbook-cities)
]

---

# Beat The Heat Handbook 3

<img src="img/matrix_to_support2.png" width="50%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[Beating the Heat: A Sustainable Cooling Handbook for Cities](https://www.unep.org/resources/report/beating-heat-sustainable-cooling-handbook-cities)
]

---
class: inverse, center, middle

# Local

### As the Beat The Heat Handbook contains examples of local policy we will start here first then more to metropolitan policy

---
# Beat the Heat Handbook...

...Has many examples of mitigation...**although some aren't in response to the UHI**...they were in place before / an associated benefit is temperature reduction

...i cannot make sense of this...

<img src="img/green_space.png" width="80%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[Beating the Heat: A Sustainable Cooling Handbook for Cities](https://www.unep.org/resources/report/beating-heat-sustainable-cooling-handbook-cities)
]

---
# Beat the Heat Handbook...

<img src="img/superblocks.jpg" width="80%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[Beating the Heat: A Sustainable Cooling Handbook for Cities. Image: regenerativedesign.world](https://regenerativedesign.world/superblocks/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=superblocks)
]

---
# Superblocks

**Background**

* The idea has been proposed many times - dating back to Barcelona’s Plan Macià, 1932, and Josep Lluís Sert and Le Corbusier

* First superblock was in 1993

***Superille (2016)***

* Community did not want

* Cars = less business...but at that time only 5% used cars

* Gentrification concerns - 15 minute cities?
  * Council used social housing then 120 other places

]

**Future**

* Transform mobility (2024 Urban Mobility Plan)

* 67Km more bus lanes that align with superblocks

* **green axes**

<img src="img/superblockgreen.jpg" width="50%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[Cities Form](https://www.citiesforum.org/news/superblock-superilla-barcelona-a-city-redefined/)
]

]

---
class: center, middle

# Superblocks

---

# Medellín Green Corridors

* Rapid and uncontrolled growth

* 2016-2019 Government Plan = Medellín, Environmental Urbanism

* Restore green corridors 
  * 36 corridors
  * along 18 roads and waterways
  * Reduced temperature 4 degrees Celsius
  
  
* Is this where people live?

]

<img src="img/servlet.jpg" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[C40 Cities](https://www.c40knowledgehub.org/s/article/Cities100-Medellin-s-interconnected-green-corridors?language=en_US)
]
]

---
class: center, inverse, middle

# Medellín Green Corridors

* Turn Down the Heat Strategy and Action Plan in 2018.

* An in-depth assessment of the cooling landscape was foundational to the development of this comprehensive Strategy and Action Plan and included aspects such as: 
  * assessment of the current state of urban heat in Western Sydney today;
  * the future of urban heat in Western Sydney, highlighting the increasing severity and frequency of heat waves; impacts of urban heat on people, infrastructure, the economy and the environment; ans taking stock of the existing work across Western Sydney to address heat.

* Video appeared online in 2016...yet it is also listed in the Beating the Heat guide..
  * What progress has been made
  * Does **identifying an action plan mean action?**
  * What are we waiting for?

.small[Source:[Beating the Heat: A Sustainable Cooling Handbook for Cities.](https://regenerativedesign.world/superblocks/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=superblocks)
]

---

# Sydney's western suburbs

---

# Reflections on this..

* Useful as it is first real guidance that states this should become part of city planning / policy

BUT...

* It **doesn't actually give specifics** 
  * How are you meant to use data to solve these problems?
  * What sort of **planning rules** need to be changed 
  * Do all cities have appropriate staff (a GIS team?) to solve these challenges
  * Is there sufficient interest within local / metropolitan / national government 
  * Is there buy in from the public 
  
* If you are a planner how should you consider applications given this guidance / requirements

* Is it up to metropolitan level / national level and not individual planning applications

---

# What about the data?

---

# Does provide some useful project ideas

* Assessing or determining the potential for reflective roofs / pavements / sidewalks

<img src="img/albedo.png" width="55%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[Beating the Heat: A Sustainable Cooling Handbook for Cities.](https://regenerativedesign.world/superblocks/?utm_source=rss&utm_medium=rss&utm_campaign=superblocks)
]

---

# Does provide some useful project ideas

* Community engagement

<img src="img/cool_roads.png" width="75%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[Sustainable Chippendale](http://sustainablechippendale.org/cool-roads)
]

---

# Does provide some useful project ideas

* 2021 Cool Roads Trial in Western Sydney

<img src="img/cool_roads_trial.png" width="70%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[Pfautsch, S., & Wujeska-Klause, A. (2021). Cool Roads Trial 2021](https://researchdirect.westernsydney.edu.au/islandora/object/uws%3A60039)
]

---
# But...

.bg-washed-blue.b--dark-green.ba.bw2.br3.shadow-5.ph4.mt5[
“Surface coating did not systematically reduce air temperature during the day or night...

Ambient air temperatures were not lowered as a result of coating roads and carparks, which can potentially be a matter of scale."]

.bg-washed-blue.b--dark-green.ba.bw2.br3.shadow-5.ph4.mt5[
“satellite-derived surface temperature shows very weak relationships with air temperature"

.tr[
— [Chakraborty et al. 2022](https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1029/2022AV000729)
]]

---
# Does provide some useful project ideas

* Accessibility to cool or green spaces / heat inequity ..

.bg-washed-blue.b--dark-green.ba.bw2.br3.shadow-5.ph4.mt5[
“**intra-urban” heat islands, or areas within a city that are hotter than others** due to the uneven distribution of heat-absorbing buildings and pavements, and cooler spaces with trees and greenery. These differences can result from **disparities in the way communities are planned**, developed, and maintained.

.tr[
— [USA Environmental Protection Agency](https://www.epa.gov/heatislands/heat-islands-and-equity#equity-connection)
]]

---

# Does provide some useful project ideas

* **disparities in the way communities are planned, developed, and maintained**

* Chicago 1995 heatwave

* 700 people died over 5 days
  * Most African Americans, older adults, and low-income residents
  * More men died - thought that women had greater social ties

]

<img src="img/chicago_heat_deaths.png" width="70%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[ERIC KLINENBERG. Denaturalizing disaster: A social autopsy of the 1995
Chicago heat wave](https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1023/A:1006995507723.pdf)
]
]
---

# Does provide some useful project ideas

* **disparities in the way communities are planned, developed, and maintained**

.bg-washed-blue.b--dark-green.ba.bw2.br3.shadow-5.ph4.mt5[
In the 1930s the American Home Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC) was tasked with refinancing mortgages on properties to prevent missed payments. To do this the HOLC assessed the **"credit-worthiness" of neighbourhoods, dividing them largely on race into grades between A, considered the "best", and D considered "hazardous"**, drawn around in red, hence the term "redlining". Other services such as healthcare and infrastructure investments were decided in similar way

The Civil Rights Act of 1968 (the Fair Housing Act) made it unlawful to discriminate housing or financing in this manner. However, the redlining legacy has left severe social equity issues across cities, such as access to outdoor space, clean air and trees.
.
.tr[
— Andy MacLachlan, former practice question
]]

---

# Does provide some useful project ideas

<img src="img/holc-scan.jpg" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[Mapping Ineqaulity Redlining in New Deal America](https://s3.amazonaws.com/holc/tiles/CA/LosAngeles1/1939/holc-scan.jpg)
]

---

# Does provide some useful project ideas

<img src="img/redline_temp.png" width="90%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[NPR](https://www.npr.org/2020/01/14/795961381/racist-housing-practices-from-the-1930s-linked-to-hotter-neighborhoods-today?t=1657641814474)
]

---
class: center, inverse, middle

# A short history on redlining (watch later)

---

# Does provide some useful project ideas

* Developing countries, which area has access to cooler spaces?

<img src="img/unequal_scenes.png" width="90%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Mumbai. Source:[unequalscenes](https://unequalscenes.com/mumbai)
]
---

# Metropolitan (city) policy / temperature reduction activities

---
# Metropolitan UHI reduction activities

* Voluntary

* Chicago’s green roof
  * Baltimore’s tree vouchers

*  Policy 
  * Metropolitan strategies
      * Perth and Peel @3.5 million 
      * The London Plan 
      * Singapore’s Master Plan

* Local city mandates 
      * Seattle’s Green Factor
      * Baton Rouge’s landscape ordinance
      * Fremantle’s Urban Forest: 20% canopy coverage (2020) –
 AUD 2.57million 
]

<img src="img/london_plan.png" width="80%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[The London Plan](https://www.london.gov.uk/sites/default/files/the_london_plan_2021.pdf)
]

]

???

Reduction activities can be split into two themes.
The voluntary theme includes 
education and incentives such as Chicago’s exemplar green city hall roof 
Baltimore County’s growing home campaign offering vouchers for purchasing trees
The policy theme incorporates the UHI into metropolitan spatial development strategies:
The London Plan 
Perth and Peel @3.5 million 
Singapore’s Master Plan
However, these documents fail in planning practicality through absent mitigation methodologies at the local level. 
Alteration of UHI influential policies (e.g. zoning and building codes) permit quantifiable planning requirements such as Seattle’s ‘Green Factor’ and Baton Rouge’s landscape ordinance specifying minimum vegetation requirements for developments over certain sizes
Yet modern planning designs lack data- informed decisions which are resulting in sub-optimal UHI mitigation strategies with the global state of data-informed governance being described as underdeveloped, disparate and marginalized.

---

# Metropolitan UHI reduction activities

* Seattle’s policy = Green Factor
  * increases the amount of and improves the quality of landscaping in new development
  * Development standards for certain areas require landscaping that meets a minimum Green Factor score
  * You must reach a **minimum score established by the zoning of your property**
  * e.g. "Commercial and Neighborhood Commercial (NC1, NC2, NC3, C1, C2): Minimum score 0.30"

]

<img src="img/green_factor.png" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:Seattle.gov]

]

---
class: center, inverse, middle

## But where [what location] is the vegetation required?

---

# Fremantle's Urban Forest Plan

* Increase quantity and distribution of green areas/tress (20% canopy coverage)

* Encourage greening of hard surfaces (e.g. parking) and in private realm

* First city to use data to inform their cooling / greening strategy

* But, what are the issues with their approach?

]

<img src="img/Thermal_Map_Image.png" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[City of Fremantle](https://www.fremantle.wa.gov.au/council/key-council-strategies/urban-forest-plan)
]

]

---

# Fremantle's Urban Forest Plan

* But, what are the issues with their approach?
  * Temperature image from one day in January 
  * Believe this is from Landsat data (see practical)
  * 30 m data that has been aggregated to block (street block level)
  * Not reproducible for other dates / cities
  * What assumptions were made
  
]

]

---

# Fremantle's Urban Forest Plan

* Does size of tree matter?

<img src="img/trees_freo.png" width="45%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[City of Fremantle](https://www.fremantle.wa.gov.au/council/key-council-strategies/urban-forest-plan)
]

---

# Fremantle's Urban Forest Plan (watch later)

---

# Rethinking planning requirements

**Perth Metropolitan Area**

* Follows the original landscape ordinance of 10% of any gross sub divisible area required for open space
  * Unaltered since Stephenson–
Hepburn metropolitan regional plan was legislated in 1955
  * based on population
density values, with an assumed number of persons likely
to be housed across various residential codes
  * Grose (2017) = gross underestimtation of open space

**Singapore**

* Singapore’s 2011 open space provisioning is defined as 4.05 m2
for every 56.0 m2 of gross floor area
  * detailed landscaping requirements such as grass coverage, tree girth,
and minimum branches, yet excludes landscape arrangement
conditions

---

# Rethinking planning requirements

Following slides refer to Mean radiant temperature (MRT)

...this is the temperature that surrounds a point

---

# Rethinking planning requirements

* Low density is the statistical area of Currambine – North of Perth.

* High density is from the city of Subiaco, West of Perth. Follows the Subiaco Redevelopment Scheme which supersedes the Metropolitan Region Scheme. It seeks improved social, economic and environmental development outcomes and transformed underutilized industrial land.

* In 2011 – population density was very similar, now Subiaco has more than double the density of Currambine with lower temperatures of between 1 and 0.6 degree Celsius dependent on land cover.
]

<img src="img/density.jpg" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[MacLachlan et al. 2021](https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fbuil.2020.519599/full)
]
]
---
# Rethinking planning requirements

<img src="img/woolstores_2.png" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
]

* 11/4/18 denied, too high and does not have distinctive architecture befitting it’s location and exceptional design quality.

<img src="img/woolstores_3.png" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
]
---

# Rethinking planning requirements

---

# Rethinking planning requirements

Ran 4 scenarios:
1. Original (existing) development (from satellite imagery)
1. Proposed redevelopment as in the plan
1. Proposed redevelopment removing trees
1. Proposed redevelopment with trees covering the hottest pixels

On average reduced temperature by 0.8 degrees Celsius across the study area.

]

<img src="img/model_temp.jpg" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[MacLachlan et al. 2021](https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fbuil.2020.519599/full)
]

]

---
# What is achievable ...

<img src="img/plannning_flow_chart.jpg" width="80%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[MacLachlan et al. 2021](https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fbuil.2020.519599/full)
]
---

# New datasets

<img src="img/Google_tree_canopy.png" width="90%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[Google Environmental Insights Explorer](https://insights.sustainability.google/labs/treecanopy)
]

---

# New datasets
<img src="img/air_quality.png" width="90%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[Google Environmental Insights Explorer](https://insights.sustainability.google/labs/airquality)
]

---

# Making sense of this

---
# Making sense of this

* There is a gap between global, metropolitan, local policy and data analysis

* The analysis needs to solve the problem and be usable

* Should we focus on **equal** access/ distribution or **equitable** access / distribution or providing environmental **justice**

* Are policies themselves the problem

* How could other cities use the same methods - e.g. could Sydney use the same temperature approach as Fremantle. 
]

<img src="img/EYz4uj8UwAAeAtJ-700x393.jpg" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[Nikki Erdmann](https://achievebrowncounty.org/2021/05/defining-equity-equality-and-justice/)
]

]

---
class: center, inverse, middle

# Approaching projects

---

# Approaching projects

**First**

* Search for EO data...we have seen (or will see) the following data
  * Temperature
  * Landcover
  * Pollution 
  * Elevation 
  * Texture / Spectral 
  * **Not** constrained to this list

* Identify an issue (look at local policy documents)

* Look at global policy documents (to see the link)

]

**Second**

* What can be solved with the data **or**

* What could this data contribute to another question (e.g. including it as a variable) **or**

* How could the remotely sensed data be included within a data workflow **or**

* Anything else as long as it includes EO data (or some sort, at some stage) and analysis for solving a policy question.

]

---

# You can use ideas presented within the lectures

---

# Summary

* Expanding cities and induce social, economic and environmental pressures

* Previous spatial decisions can dictate how these pressures are distributed across the city / population.

* Global policy can often be vague and ambiguous, lacking clear guidance
  * **How much/what** guidance does a city planner need?
]

.pull-right[
* Approaches can often disregard the **spatial element**...should the policy / plan be
  * Equally distributed (e.g. tree vouchers)
  * Equitably distributed (e.g. reflective streets)
  * Or the system changed (e.g. transforming neighborhoods)
  
  
<img src="img/EYz4uj8UwAAeAtJ-700x393.jpg" width="100%" style="display: block; margin: auto;" />
.small[Source:[Nikki Erdmann](https://achievebrowncounty.org/2021/05/defining-equity-equality-and-justice/)
]

]